Coyote

The coyote (US: /kaɪˈoʊt̬i/ or kaɪˈoʊt, UK: /kɔɪˈəʊti/ or kɔɪˈəʊt; Canis latrans), also known as the American jackal or the prairie wolf,[2] is a species of canine found throughout North and Central America, ranging from Panama in the south, north through Mexico, the United States and Canada. It occurs as far north as Alaska and all but the northernmost portions of Canada.[3] There are currently 19 recognized subspecies, with 16 in Canada, Mexico and the United States, and 3 in Central America.[4] Unlike its cousin the Gray Wolf, which is Eurasian in origin, evolutionary theory suggests the coyote evolved in North America during the Pleistocene epoch 1.81 million years ago[5] alongside the Dire Wolf.[6] Unlike the wolf, the coyote's range has expanded in the wake of human civilization, and coyotes readily reproduce in metropolitan areas.

Name
The name coyote is borrowed from Mexican Spanish, ultimately derived from the Nahuatl word cóyotl.[9] Its scientific name, Canis latrans, means "barking dog" in Latin.[10] Preliminary genetic evidence, however, has shown that "coyotes" in some areas are, genetically speaking, 85-90 percent Canis latrans, and from ten to fifteen percent Canis lupus, along with some domestic dog DNA; this prompted one researcher to suggest, jokingly, that they be called "Canis soupus," as they are a "soup" (mixture) of canid species.[11]

Description
The color of the coyote's pelt varies from grayish brown to yellowish gray on the upper parts, while the throat and belly tend to have a buff or white color. The forelegs, sides of the head, muzzle and paws are reddish brown. The back has tawny-colored underfur and long, black-tipped guard hairs that form a black dorsal stripe and a dark cross on the shoulder area. The black-tipped tail has a scent gland located on its dorsal base. Coyotes shed once a year, beginning in May with light hair loss, ending in July after heavy shedding. The ears are proportionately large in relation to the head, while the feet are relatively small in relation to the rest of the body.[3] Certain experts have noted that the shape of a domestic dog's brain case is closer to the coyote's in shape than the wolf's. Mountain dwelling coyotes tend to be dark furred while desert coyotes tend to be more light brown in color.[4]

Coyotes typically grow to up to 30–34 in (76–86 cm) in length, not counting a tail of 12–16 in (30–41 cm), stand about 23–26 in (58–66 cm) at the shoulder and, on average, weigh from 15–46 lb (6.8–21 kg) .[3] [12] Northern coyotes are typically larger than southern subspecies, with the largest coyotes on record weighing 74¾ pounds (33.7 kg) and measuring over five feet in total length.[13]

The coyote's dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, Pm 4/4, M usually 2/2, occasionally 3/3, 3/2, or 2/3 × 2 = 40, 44, or 42[14] Normal spacing between the upper canine teeth is 1⅛–1⅜inches (29–35 mm) and 1–1¼inches (25–32 mm) between the lower canine teeth.[15]

The upper frequency limit of hearing for coyotes is 80 KHz, compared to the 60 kHz of domestic dogs.[16] Compared to wolves, and similarly to domestic dogs, coyotes have a higher density of sweat glands on their paw pads. This trait, however, is absent in the large New England coyotes, which are thought to have some wolf ancestry.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DOGS_16-0">[17]

During pursuit, a coyote may reach speeds up to 43 mph (69 km/h),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17">[18] and can jump a distance of over 13 ft (4 m).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GJ_2-3">[3]

Behavior
Though coyotes have been observed to travel in large groups, they primarily hunt in pairs. Typical packs consist of six closely related adults, yearlings and young. Coyote packs are generally smaller than wolf packs and associations between individuals are less stable,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Encyclopedia_18-0">[19] thus making their social behavior more in line with that of the dingo.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-helmut_19-0">[20] It has been theorized that this is due to an earlier expression of aggression, and the fact that coyotes reach their full growth in their first year, unlike wolves, which reach it in their second.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Encyclopedia_18-1">[19] Common names of coyote groups are a band, a pack, or a rout.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20">[21] Coyotes are primarily nocturnal, but can often be seen during daylight hours.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GJ_2-4">[3] Coyotes were once essentially diurnal, but have adapted to more nocturnal behavior with pressure from humans (McClennen et al., 2001).

Coyotes are capable of digging their own burrows, though they often prefer the burrows of groundhogs or American badgers. Coyote territorial ranges can be as much as 19 kilometers in diameter around the den, and travel occurs along fixed trails.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GJ_2-5">[3]

In areas where wolves have been exterminated, coyotes usually flourish. For example, as New England became increasingly settled and the resident wolves were eliminated, the coyote population increased, filling the empty biological niche. Coyotes appear better able than wolves to live among people.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-EC_21-0">[22]

Coyotes have been known to live a maximum of 10 years in the wild and 18 years in captivity.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GJ_2-6">[3] They seem to be better than dogs at observational learning.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DOGS_16-1">[17]

Reproduction
Female coyotes are monoestrous, and remain in heat for 2–5 days between late January and late March, during which mating occurs. Once the female chooses a partner, the mated pair may remain temporarily monogamous for a number of years. Depending on geographic location, spermatogenesis in males takes around 54 days, and occurs between January and February. The gestation period lasts from 60 to 63 days. Litter size ranges from 1 to 19 pups; the average is 6.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GJ_2-7">[3] These large litters act as compensatory measures against the high juvenile mortality rate, with approximately 50-70% of pups not surviving to adulthood.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-michigan_22-0">[23] The pups weigh approximately 250 grams at birth, and are initially blind and limp-eared.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GJ_2-8">[3] Coyote growth rate is faster than that of wolves, being similar in length to that of the dhole.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DHOLE_23-0">[24] The eyes open and ears become erect after 10 days. Around 21–28 days after birth, the young begin to emerge from the den, and by 35 days they are fully weaned. Both parents feed the weaned pups with regurgitated food. Male pups will disperse from their dens between months 6 and 9, while females usually remain with the parents and form the basis of the pack. The pups attain full growth between 9 and 12 months. Sexual maturity is reached by 12 months.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GJ_2-9">[3] Unlike wolves, mother coyotes will tolerate other lactating females in their pack.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-wits_24-0">[25]

Interspecific hybridization
Coyotes will sometimes mate with domestic dogs, usually in areas like Texas and Oklahoma, where the coyotes are plentiful and the breeding season is extended because of the warm weather. The resulting hybrids, called coydogs, maintain the coyote's predatory nature, along with the dog's lack of timidity toward humans, making them a more serious threat to livestock than pure-blooded animals. This cross-breeding has the added effect of confusing the breeding cycle. Coyotes usually breed only once a year, while coydogs will breed year-round, producing many more pups than a wild coyote. Differences in the ears and tail are generally what can be used to distinguish coydogs from domestic/feral dogs or pure coyotes.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25">[26] Breeding experiments in Germany with poodles, coyotes, and later on with the resulting dog-coyote hybrids showed that unlike wolfdogs, coydogs show a decrease in fertility, significant communication problems as well as an increase of genetic diseases after three generations of interbreeding.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26">[27]

Coyotes have also been known on occasion to mate with wolves, though this is less common than with dogs, due to the wolf's hostility to the coyote. The offspring, known as a coywolf, is generally intermediate in size to both parents, being larger than a pure coyote, but smaller than a pure wolf. A study showed that of 100 coyotes collected in Maine, 22 had half or more wolf ancestry, and one was 89 percent wolf. A theory has been proposed that the large eastern coyotes in Canada are actually hybrids of the smaller western coyotes and wolves that met and mated decades ago as the coyotes moved toward New England from their earlier western ranges.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-EC_21-1">[22] Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources research scientist Brent Patterson has revealed findings that most coyotes in Eastern Ontario are wolf-coyote hybrids and that the Eastern wolves in Algonquin Park are, in general, not inter-breeding with coyotes.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27">[28]

The Red Wolf is thought by certain scientists to be in fact a wolf/coyote hybrid rather than a unique species. Strong evidence for hybridization was found through genetic testing, which showed that red wolves have only 5% of their alleles unique from either gray wolves or coyotes. Genetic distance calculations have indicated that red wolves are intermediate between coyotes and gray wolves, and that they bear great similarity to wolf/coyote hybrids in southern Quebec and Minnesota. Analyses of mitochondrial DNA showed that existing red wolf populations are predominantly coyote in origin.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Red_28-0">[29]

Communication
The calls a coyote makes are high-pitched and variously described as howls, yips, yelps, and barks. These calls may be a long rising and falling note (a howl) or a series of short notes (yips). These calls are most often heard at dusk or night, but may sometimes be heard in the day or in the middle of the day. Although these calls are made throughout the year, they are most common during the spring mating season and in the fall when the pups leave their families to establish new territories. When a coyote calls his pack together, he howls at one high note. When the pack is together, he howls higher and higher, and then they yip and yelp and also do a yi-yi sound very shrill with the howl.

Diet and hunting
Coyotes are opportunistic, versatile carnivores with a 90% mammalian diet, depending on the season. They primarily eat small mammals, such as voles, prairie dogs, eastern cottontails, ground squirrels, and mice, though they will eat birds, snakes, lizards, deer, javelina, and livestock, as well as large insects and other large invertebrates. The coyote will also target any species of bird that nests on the ground. Though they will consume large amounts of carrion, they tend to prefer fresh meat. Fruits and vegetables are a significant part of the coyote's diet in the autumn and winter months. Part of the coyote's success as a species is its dietary adaptability. As such, coyotes have been known to eat human rubbish and domestic pets. They catch cats and dogs when they come too close to the pack. Urban populations of coyotes have been known to actively hunt cats, and to leap shorter fences to take small dogs. In particularly bold urban packs, coyotes have also been reported to shadow human joggers or larger dogs, and even to take small dogs while the dog is still on a leash. However, this behavior is often reported when normal urban prey, such as rabbits, have become scarce. Yet, confirmed reports of coyotes killing a human have been documented.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29">[30] <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GJ_2-10">[3]

Though the coyote is the basis for the character of Wile E. Coyote in the Warner Brothers Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies animated cartoons, especially about the Road Runner, coyotes have not been known as yet to attack Greater Roadrunners for prey.

Coyotes shift their hunting techniques in accordance with their prey. When hunting small animals such as mice, they slowly stalk through the grass, and use their acute sense of smell to track down the prey. When the prey is located, the coyotes stiffen and pounce on the prey in a cat-like manner. Coyotes will commonly work in teams when hunting large ungulates such as deer, which is more common in winter (when large prey is likely weakened) and in larger-bodied Northern coyotes. Coyotes may take turns in baiting and pursuing the deer to exhaustion, or they may drive it towards a hidden member of the pack.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GJ_2-11">[3] When attacking large prey, coyotes attack from the rear and the flanks of their prey. Occasionally they also grab the neck and head, pulling the animal down to the ground. Coyotes are persistent hunters, with successful attacks sometimes lasting as much as 21 hours; even unsuccessful ones can continue more than 8 hours before the coyotes give up. Depth of snow can affect the likelihood of a successful kill.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-YS_30-0">[31] Packs of coyotes can bring down prey as large as adult elk, which usually weigh over 250 kg (550 lbs).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31">[32]

The average distance covered in a night's hunting is 4 km (2½ mi).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-GJ_2-12">[3]